Holy See Diplomacy on Promoting Peace
This piece was written in 2019. I am publishing it in light of recent events.
Catholic Social Teaching on Peace
The doctrine of just war is the center of the Catholic Social Teaching on peace. According to the doctrine of just war, in order for a war to be morally permissible, the following criteria must be met: 1. the damage inflicted by the aggressor on the nation or community of nations must be lasting, grave, and certain; 2 all other means of putting an end to it must have been shown to be impractical or ineffective; 3. there must be serious prospects of success; and 4. the use of arms must not produce evils and disorders graver than the evil to be eliminated[1]. In order to understand the Church’s teaching, we shall trace the development of the Church’s doctrine of peace.
Peace, as understood by the Church, is not just the absence of war but the establishment of an order based on justice and charity[2]. As revealed in Sacred Scripture, peace represents the fullness of life and God’s covenant[3]. Thus, peace is founded on the primary relationship that exists between every human being and God himself[4]. Violence, however, entered the world by the voluntary act of man altering the divine order[5]. Yet, God fulfills His promise of peace in the very person of Jesus Christ.
Jesus fulfills the messianic prophecy that he would be the Prince of Peace[6]. Hence, working for peace can never be separated from announcing the Gospel. At the center of this gospel of peace is the mystery of the cross for peace is born of Christ’s sacrifice. Thus, the Church’s mission must be a “sacrament” of peace in the world[7].
There was no clear consensus in the early Church on whether war is justifiable or whether pacifism is the only option for Christians. A wide range of Church Fathers supported “pacifists” stance. St. Justin Martyr, for example, wrote that “The devil is the author of all war… We, who used to kill one another, do not make war on our enemies.[8]” St. Irenaeus also said that “Christians have changed their swords and their lances into instruments of peace, and they know not how to fight.[9]” Other Church Fathers such as St. Clement of Alexandria, however, treated military service as if it were any other occupation[10]. St. Pope Hippolytus also said that “police duty” is allowed for Christians as long as “they do not execute men,” showing at least the consideration of the possibility that Christians may serve in the army[11].
It was not until the time of St. Augustine of Hippo and St. Ambrose of Milan that the concept of just war takes shape. The rise of Constantine effectively made the concept of just war more popular[12], with Eusebius famously stating that Constantine had a vision of the cross coming from the light of the sun carrying the message “By This Sign Conquer[13].” This transition is seen in the writings of St. Basil the Great who wrote that “it is possible even in the military profession to maintain perfect love for God[14].” St. Ambrose, who was a provincial Roman governor and had great political influence wrote “Everyone believes it is much more commendable to protect one’s country from destruction than to protect oneself from danger[15].” The attitude of St. Ambrose must be read in the context that barbarian forces are beginning to threaten the Empire during his time. For him, Christian participation in war was justified because they were protecting the Faith and the Empire[16]. It was St. Augustine, however, who had great influence on Western Theology, that cemented the concept of just war, contributing to the topic more than any other author in the early Church[17]. In fact, the basic principle of just war, is mostly taken from St. Augustine’s “City of God,” where he wrote “They tell us, however, that the wise man will wage just wars…[but] unless the wars were just, he would not have to wage them…It is the other side‘s wrongdoing that compels the wise man to wage just wars, and even if that wrongdoing gave rise to no unavoidable conflicts, it should cause man sorrow because man is responsible for it[18].”
Thus, for the Church, peace is not just the absence of war. Man’s failure to maintain peace, however, results in wars. A war, according to the principle of St. Augustine, must only be waged if it is just. The criteria for a just war have been developed over the centuries by the Church, which can be summed into four strict criterions outlined above. The Early Church has been divided on the concept of just war. Church Fathers, especially St. Augustine, significantly contributed to the doctrine of just war. This doctrine of just war is the center of the Catholic Social Teaching on Peace.
History of Holy See Diplomacy on Promoting Peace: Case of Vietnam
The Holy See failed to live out the Catholic Teaching on peace during the Vietnam War. Although the Holy See tirelessly promoted peace in Vietnam, it was unable to live out its teachings on peace by trying to balance political impartiality and its own concern on the well-being of South Vietnamese Catholics. This is evidenced by the exhortations, letters, and diplomatic messages of St. Pope Paul VI, who employed a cautious logic on handling the situation. In addition to the need for a strong moral response, the Holy See’s diplomatic actions were heavily influenced by the well-being of the South Vietnamese Catholics and its affinity with the White House.
The non-negotiable bottom line for the Holy See is the protection of the local Catholics. Following Ho Chi Minh’s victory of the French in 1954, Vietnam was divided along the 17th parallel. This division, exacerbated by CIA propaganda, has led many Catholics to flee from the North to the South[19]. The number of Catholics in the North declined from 1,133,000 to 457,000, while the number of Catholics in the South increased from 461,000 to 1,137,000[20]. The Catholics in the South became a key pillar for anti-communism. In an unsigned Vatican memorandum submitted to the US embassy, the concern on the safety of these Catholics was expressed by the Holy See saying that “it is most urgently necessary that the Catholics of Vietnam be not sacrificed in any way whatsoever[21].”
This concern for the South Vietnamese has led the Holy See to not question US intervention. Even though the pope criticized the escalation of the war in 1965, he did not call for the withdrawal of US troops. This in turn has led the Holy See to be blinded to the deeper anti-colonial dimensions of the Vietnam War[22].
As such, the peace formula of the Holy See is centered on bilateral solution. In 1967, St. Pope Paul VI sent letters to Washington and Ho Chi Minh, hoping for a negotiation. President Johnson informed the Pope that he was prepared to talk but the Pope should not expect military action to be reduced. Ho Chi Minh, on the other hand, asked the Pope to put pressure on the US to remove their troops, saying that “US imperialists have sent to South Vietnam half a million US and satellite troops[23].” This negotiation, hoped for by the Pope, never happened. In the end, the bilateral solution, as opposed to call for US withdrawal, was more in favor White House and went against the interest of North Vietnam.
The Holy See, however, also did not publicly bless America’s cause. The Pope was careful to attribute the war to any party, still hoping for a bilateral negotiation. Still, in a letter to the US Ambassador in Rome, the Pope said that he wishes that the US “wins morally and psychologically[24].” Amb. Lodge’s conversation with Msgr. Marcinkus reveals that the reason why the pope cannot say “the Americans are right” is because this would lead to loss of contact with Eastern Europeans[25]. The Holy See thus considers the war by the US as a just war in all but name.
The concern for the South Vietnamese, and other diplomatic concern has led the Holy See to not sanction America’s war as a just war nor to call for a withdrawal of US troops. The Pope was also not able to consider the colonial dimensions of the war. Thus, the inaction of the Holy See caused by its efforts to balance interests is the reason why it was not able to live out its teaching on peace.
Pope Francis’ Diplomacy on Peace: Case of Syria
Pope Francis has focused on the humanitarian dimension of the Syrian crisis. Instead of siding with either the US-bloc or the Assad-Russian bloc, the Holy See maintains its focus on civilians. It has not publicly acknowledged either side as waging a just war. The Pope has condemned both the chemical attacks, accredited to the Syrian government, and in an indirect way, the foreign-led attacks led by the US.
The Pope is not fond of the US involvement in Syria. On the first year of his Pontificate, Pope Francis was faced with a challenge on the Syrian crisis with the United States, United Kingdom and France planning military intervention as a response to a chemical attack. The Pope then called for a day of prayer and fasting for peace in Syria[26]. Pope Francis, furthermore, wrote a letter to President Putin, who was the head of the G20, pleading against American-led military action[27]. This was clearly a sign of Pope’s disapproval of the involvement of the US on Syria.
The Holy See was quick to condemn the chemical attacks done by the Syrian government, as well. In all instances, the Pope quickly criticizes the use of chemical attacks, especially the harm they do to civilians[28]. In his homily on the Sunday after the chemical bombings in Syria in April 2018, Pope Francis said that “Nothing can justify the use of such instruments of extermination against defenseless people and populations.[29]” In 2016, the Pope, through Cardinal Zenari, Apostolic Nuncio to Syria, also wrote a letter to Assad calling for an end to violence and for the observance of international humanitarian laws[30].
The Holy See always talks about the safety and well-being of the Syrian people. Abp. Gallagher, Secretary for Relations with States, said at the High-Level Meeting on the Syrian Crisis at the UN that “The rights of all Syrians must be protected[31].” In June 2019, Pope Francis wrote another letter to Assad, through Cardinal Turkson, Prefect of the Dicastery or the Promotion of Integral Human Development, urging President Assad to improve the humanitarian conditions in the country. Cardinal Pietro Parolin, Secretary of State, explained that “the Holy Father asks the President to do everything possible to put an end to this humanitarian catastrophe… in respect for international humanitarian law[32].” In an interview, Assad said that the Pope has an incomplete picture about the war[33].
Religious freedom is also important for the Holy Father. Cardinal Parolin, in an intervention at the High-Level Ministerial Event on Syria at the UN, stressed that the presence of Christians and religious minorities must be supported and encouraged[34]. As Pope Francis stressed in his speech to the Diplomatic Corps accredited to the Holy See: “It is extremely important that Christians have a place in the future of the region[35].”
The Holy See does not favor the US military involvement in Syria nor does its side with the Assad government. However, in every chance, the Holy See always expresses its concern on the humanitarian situation and religious freedom in the region
[1] Catholic Church, Catechism of the Catholic Church (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1994)
[2] Second Vatican Ecumenical Council, Gaudium et Spes, 78, 1966
[3] Cf. Mal 2:5
[4] Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church, 2005
[5] Ibid.
[6] Cf. Is 9:6
[7] Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church
[8] St. Justin Martyr, The Second Apology, 138AD
[9] St. Iranaeus, Against Heresies
[10] St. Clement of Alexandria, Protrepticus
[11] Gregory Dix and Henry Chadwick, The Treatise on the Apostolic Tradition of St Hippolytus of Rome, Bishop and Martyr (Routledge, 2013)
[12] Luke Arnold, “From pacifism to just war theory: The development of Christian attitudes to war and military service from the late first century to the early fifth century” (George Fox University, 2011)
[13] Eusebius of Caesarea, Vita Constantini
[14] St. Basil the Great, “Letter 106”
[15] St. Ambrose of Milan, On the Duties of the Clergy
[16] Roland H. Bainton, Christian Attitudes Toward War and Peace: A Historical Survey and Critical Re-Evaluation (New York: Abingdon Press, 1979) Cf. St. Ambrose of Milan, On the Duties of the Clergy
[17] Arnold, “From pacifism to just war theory: The development of Christian attitudes to war and military service from the late first century to the early fifth century”
[18] St. Augustine of Hippo, De Civitate Dei, 413AD
[19] T. Jeremy Gunn, Spiritual Weapons: The Cold War and the Forging of an American National Religion (Westport, Conn: Praeger, 2008)
[20] Seth Jacobs, America’s Miracle Man in Vietnam: Ngo Dinh Diem, Religion, Race, and U.S. Intervention in Southeast Asia (Durham: Duke University Press Books, 2005)
[21] A. Alexander Stummvoll, A Living Tradition: Catholic Social Doctrine and Holy See Diplomacy (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2018). Cf. US Embassy Rome to Department of States, Telegram, April 19, 1965
[22] Ibid.
[23] US Embassy Rome to Department of States, Telegram, February 8, 1967
[24] “Eyes Only for the Secretary from Ambassador Lodge,” Telegram, January 17, 1967
[25] Ibid.
[26] Philip Pullella, “Pope asks other faiths to join day of prayer for peace in Syria,” Reuters, September 1, 2013
[27] Letter of Pope Francis to H. E. Mr. Vladimir Putin, President of The Russian Federation, On the Occasion of the G20 St. Petersburg Summit, September 4, 2013
[28] Carol Williams, “Pope Francis condemns chemical weapons use, calls for peace in Syria,” Los Angeles Times, September 3, 2013
[29] Junno Esteves, “Pope Francis denounces chemical weapons attack in Syria,” America Magazine, April 9, 2018, https://www.americamagazine.org/politics-society/2018/04/09/pope-francis-denounces-chemical-weapons-attack-syria
[30] Cindy Wooden, “Pope writes to Syrian president, pleading for peace and aid corridors,” Catholic News Service, December 13, 2016
[31] Address by H. E. Archbishop Paul Richard Gallagher to the Seventy-second Session of the United Nations General Assembly at the High-level Meeting on the Syrian crisis organized by the European Union Delegation to the United Nations, UN Headquarters, New York, 21 September 2017.
[32] Andrea Tornielli, “Card. Parolin: ‘Pope asking Assad for concrete initiatives on behalf of Syrian population’ — Vatican News,” Vatican News, July 22, 2019
[33] “Syria’s Assad says Pope Francis has ‘incomplete’ picture of the war,” Crux, December 10, 2019, https://cruxnow.com/church-in-the-middle-east/2019/12/syrias-assad-says-pope-francis-has-incomplete-picture-of-the-war/
[34] Speech by H.E. Cardinal Pietro Parolin at 74th General Assembly of the United Nations on the High-Level Ministerial Event on Syria, UN Headquarters, New York, 24 September 2019.
[35] Pope Francis, Address to the Diplomatic Corps accredited to the Holy See, 7 January 2019.
